Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) is a naturally occurring 37-amino-acid peptide first identified in 1982 (Amara, S. G. et al, Science 1982, 298, 240–244). Two forms of the peptide are expressed (αCGRP and βCGRP) which differ by one and three amino acids in rats and humans, respectively. The peptide is widely distributed in both the peripheral (PNS) and central nervous system (CNS), principally localized in sensory afferent and central neurons, and displays a number of biological effects, including vasodilation.
When released from the cell, CGRP binds to specific cell surface G protein-coupled receptors, and exerts its biological action predominantly by activation of intracellular adenylate cyclase (Poyner, D. R. et al, Br J Pharmacol 1992, 105, 441–7; Van Valen, F. et al, Neurosci Lett 1990, 119, 195–8.). Two classes of CGRP receptors, CGRP1 and CGRP2, have been proposed based on the antagonist properties of the peptide fragment CGRP(8-37) and the ability of linear analogues of CGRP to activate CGRP2 receptors (Juaneda, C. et al. TiPS 2000, 21, 432–438). However, there is lack of molecular evidence for the CGRP2 receptor (Brain, S. D. et al, TiPS 2002, 23, 51–53). The CGRP1 receptor has three components: (i) a 7 transmembrane calcitonin receptor-like receptor (CRLR); (ii) the single transmembrane receptor activity modifying protein type one (RAMP1); and (iii) the intracellular receptor component protein (RCP) (Evans B. N. et al., J Biol Chem. 2000, 275, 31438–43). RAMP1 is required for transport of CRLR to the plasma membrane and for ligand binding to the CGRP-receptor (McLatchie, L. M. et al, Nature 1998, 393, 333–339). RCP is required for signal transduction (Evans B. N. et al., J Biol Chem. 2000, 275, 31438–43). There are known species-specific differences in binding of small molecule antagonists to the CGRP-receptor with typically greater affinity seen for antagonism of the human receptor than for other species (Brain, S. D. et al, TiPS 2002, 23, 51–53). The amino acid sequence of RAMP1 determines the species selectivity, in particular, the amino acid residue Trp74 is responsible for the phenotype of the human receptor (Mallee et al. J Biol Chem 2002, 277, 14294–8).
Inhibitors at the receptor level to CGRP are postulated to be useful in pathophysiologic conditions where excessive CGRP receptor activation has occurred. Some of these include neurogenic vasodilation, neurogenic inflammation, migraine, cluster headache and other headaches, thermal injury, circulatory shock, menopausal flushing, and asthma. CGRP receptor activation has been implicated in the pathogenesis of migraine headache (Edvinsson L. CNS Drugs 2001;15(10):745–53; Williamson, D. J. Microsc. Res. Tech. 2001, 53, 167–178.; Grant, A. D. Brit. J. Pharmacol. 2002, 135, 356–362.). Serum levels of CGRP are elevated during migraine (Goadsby P J, et al. Ann Neurol 1990;28: 183–7) and treatment with anti-migraine drugs returns CGRP levels to normal coincident with alleviation of headache (Gallai V. et al. Cephalalgia 1995;15: 384–90). Migraineurs exhibit elevated basal CGRP levels compared to controls (Ashina M, et al., Pain. 2000;86(1–2):133–8. 2000). Intravenous CGRP infusion produces lasting headache in migraineurs (Lassen L H, et al. Cephalalgia. February 2000;22(1):54–61). Preclinical studies in dog and rat report that systemic CGRP blockade with the peptide antagonist CGRP(8-37) does not alter resting systemic hemodynamics nor regional blood flow (Shen, Y-T. et al, J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2001, 298, 551–8). Thus, CGRP-receptor antagonists may present a novel treatment for migraine that avoids the cardiovascular liabilities of active vasoconstriction associated with non-selective 5-HT1B/1D agonists, ‘triptans’ (e.g., sumatriptan).
There are various in vivo migraine models known in the literature (see De Vries, P. et al, Eur J Pharmacol 1999, 375, 61–74). Some electrically stimulate the trigeminal ganglion and measure dilation of the intracranial vessels which they innervate (e.g., Williamson et al. Cephalalgia 1997 17:518–24). Since facial arteries are also innervated by the trigeminal nerve, other models study changes in facial blood flow induced by electrical trigeminal activation (e.g., Escott et al. Brain Res 1995 669:93). Alternatively, other peripheral nerves (e.g., saphenous) and vascular beds (e.g., abdominal blood flow) are also studied (e.g., Escott et al. Br J Pharmacol 1993 110, 772–6;). All models have been shown to be blocked by pretreatment with the peptide antagonist CGPR(8-37) a peptide fragment that is absent the 1st seven residues, or by a small molecule CGRP-receptor antagonist. In some instances, exogenous CGRP has been used as a stimulus. However, these models are all invasive terminal procedures, and none have shown the clinically important abortive effect of reversing an established increase in artery dilation or increased blood flow using post-treatment of a CGRP-receptor antagonist. Williamson et al. Cephalalgia 1997 17:518–24, and Williamson et al. Cephalalgia. 1997 17:525–31: used inter alia i.v. CGRP as a stimulus to increase intracranial dural artery diameter in sodium pentobarb anesthetized rats employing a terminal ‘intravital’ procedure that involved drilling to thin the skull and the creation of a closed cranial window to visualize dural arteries. The effect was blocked by pretreatment with i.v. CGRP(8-37). Escott et al. Brain Res 1995 669:93; inter alia drilled into the rat skull and used brain electrodes to electrically stimulate the trigeminal ganglion and measured laser Doppler facial blood flow in a terminal procedure in sodium pentobarb anesthetized rats involving neuromuscular blockade, tracheal intubation and artificial ventilation. The effect was blocked by pretreatment with CGRP(8-37). Escott et al. Br J Pharmacol 1993 110, 772–6; inter alia used intradermal (i.d.) CGRP as the stimulus to increase blood flow in rat abdominal skin of sodium pentobarb anesthetized animals outfitted with cannulated jugular veins for anesthetic and drug delivery. The effect was blocked by pretreatment with i.v. CGRP(8-37). Chu et al. Neurosci Lett 2001 310, 169–72 used inter alia i.d. CGRP as the stimulus in rats and measured laser Doppler changes in blood flow in the skin of the back in a terminal method using sodium pentobarb anesthetized and tracheal cannulated animals; and showed pretreatment blockade by continuous release of CGRP(8-37) from subcutaneously (s.c.) implanted osmotic pumps. Hall et al Br J Pharmacol 1995 114, 592–7 and Hall et al Br J Pharmacol 1999 126, 280–4 inter alia used topical CGRP to increase hamster cheek pouch arteriole diameter, and i.d. CGRP to increase blood flow in rat dorsal skin of sodium pentobarb anesthetized animals outfitted with cannulated jugular veins for anesthetic and drug delivery. The effect was blocked by pretreatment with i.v. CGRP(8-37). Doods et al. Br J Pharmacol. February 2000;129(3):420–3 inter alia drilled into the skull of the marmoset (new world monkey) and used brain electrodes to produce electrical stimulation of the trigeminal ganglion and measured facial blood flow in an invasive terminal procedure involving neuromuscular blockade and artificial ventilation of sodium pentobarbital anesthetized primates. Increase in flow was blocked by pre-treatment of a small molecule CGRP antagonist. See also WO 03/272252 Isolated DNA Molecules Encoding Humanized Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide Receptor, Related Non-Human Transgenic Animals and Assay Methods. Thus the method of the present invention procedure being inter alia a non-invasive survival model in primates measuring exogenous CGRP-induced changes in facial blood flow and demonstrating pre- and post-treatment effects of peptide and small molecule CGRP antagonists in spontaneously breathing isoflurane anesthetized marmosets who recover from the procedure offers significant advantages.
A number of non-peptidic, small molecule CGRP-receptor antagonists have been recently reported. WO 97/09046 and equivalents disclose inter alia quinine and quinidine related compounds which are ligands, in particular antagonists, of CGRP-receptor. WO 98/09630 and WO 98/56779 and equivalents disclose inter alia variously substituted, nitrobenzamide compounds as CGRP-receptor antagonists. WO 01/32649, WO 01/49676, and WO 01/32648 and equivalents disclose inter alia a series of 4-oxobutanamides and related cyclopropane derivatives as CGRP-receptor antagonists. WO 00/18764, WO 98/11128 and WO 00/55154 and equivalents disclose inter alia benzimidazolinyl piperidines as antagonists to CGRP-receptor. Unrelated to CGRP, a series of somatostatin antagonists have been disclosed in WO 99/52875 and WO 01/25228 and equivalents. See also U.S. Pat. No. 6,344,449, U.S. Pat. No. 6,313,097, U.S. Pat. No. 6,521,609, U.S. Pat. No. 6,552,043, US 20030181462, US 20030191068 and WO 03/076432 and related applications. Thus, novel CGRP-receptor antagonists effective for the treatment of neurogenic inflammation, migraine and other disorders would be greatly advantageous.